The Indian National Movement played a pivotal role in securing the country's independence. It began in 1947 and evolved over several years before achieving success. Various factors contributed to the genesis of this movement, including the rise of nationalism, events like the Rowlatt Satyagraha, the proliferation of mass nationalism, and the Quit India movement.
In crafting these CBSE Class 8 History notes for Chapter 9 – "The Making of the National Movement: 1870s-1947," we have comprehensively addressed all key topics covered in the chapter.
The Emergence of Nationalism
In India, the notion of nationalism encompassed all people, irrespective of their social status, ethnicity, religion, language, or gender, as well as the collective resources and systems of the nation. However, British colonial rule exerted control over India's resources and the lives of its inhabitants.
This awareness became increasingly articulated through political associations formed post-1850, notably in the 1870s and 1880s. Key organizations included the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and the Indian National Congress.
Operating regionally, these associations championed the aspirations of the entire Indian populace, advocating for self-determination in national affairs. In 1878, the Arms Act prohibited Indians from possessing firearms, while the Vernacular Press Act aimed to stifle dissent by enabling the government to seize assets of critical newspapers.
The introduction of the Ilbert Bill in 1883 sought to allow the trial of British or European individuals by Indian judges, advocating for judicial equality.
The Indian National Congress, established in December 1885, included early leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, and S. Subramania Iyer, primarily from Bombay and Calcutta.
A nation in the making
In its initial two decades, the Congress pressed for greater Indian representation in governmental and administrative roles. It advocated for more inclusive and potent Legislative Councils, especially in provinces lacking such bodies, and campaigned for Indians to hold prominent positions within the government. This push for Indianization aimed to combat racial discrimination, as key administrative posts were predominantly held by white officials.
Additionally, Indianization was seen as a means to stem the outflow of wealth to England. Other demands included the separation of the judiciary from the executive, the repeal of the Arms Act, and the protection of freedom of speech and expression.
The Congress also addressed various economic concerns arising from British rule, which exacerbated poverty and famine. It called for a reduction in revenue, a decrease in military spending, and increased funding for irrigation projects. Resolutions were passed on issues such as the salt tax, the treatment of Indian laborers abroad, and the hardships faced by forest dwellers.
Moderate leaders utilized newspapers and articles to illustrate how British rule was detrimental to the country's economic well-being. They believed that the British, who purportedly valued ideals of freedom and justice, would eventually accede to Indian demands.
"Freedom Is Our Birthright"
Criticism of the Congress's political approach emerged from regions like Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab, where leaders such as Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai disparaged the Moderates' reliance on passive resistance and stressed the importance of self-reliance and constructive activism.
The partition of Bengal in 1905, despite being the largest province in British India, was justified by the British on grounds of administrative convenience. Instead of removing non-Bengali areas from the province, they split Bengal and merged East Bengal with Assam.
Both Moderates and Radicals opposed the partition, sparking widespread protests and public demonstrations, culminating in the Swadeshi movement. Particularly potent in Bengal and the deltaic region of Andhra, it was also known as the Vandemataram Movement.
This movement rejected British rule and promoted concepts like self-help, indigenous enterprise, national education, and the promotion of Indian languages. Some advocates even suggested that revolutionary violence might be necessary to overthrow British rule.
The All India Muslim League, established in 1906 by a faction of Muslim landlords and nawabs in Dacca, supported the partition of Bengal. It advocated for separate electorates for Muslims, a demand granted by the government in 1909. The Congress split in 1907, with Moderates dominating the faction while Tilak's followers operated independently.
The two factions reunited in December 1915. The Lucknow Pact was signed between the Congress and the Muslim League, signaling a commitment to collaborate for representative governance in the country.
The Growth of Mass Nationalism
Following 1919, the resistance against British rule gradually transformed into a widespread movement, drawing in peasants, tribal communities, students, women, and occasionally, factory workers in significant numbers.
Post-First World War, India's economic and political landscape underwent significant changes, resulting in a substantial increase in the Government of India's defense expenditure. Taxes on individual incomes and business profits were raised.
The war prompted the expansion of Indian industries, leading Indian business entities to demand greater opportunities for growth. Additionally, the war necessitated the enlargement of the British army. Notably, the Russian Revolution of 1917 also impacted global political dynamics.
The advent of Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a prominent leader upon his return to India from South Africa in 1915. His leadership was characterized by non-violent protests against discriminatory laws.
Having interacted with diverse Indian communities during his South African campaigns, Gandhi spent his initial year traveling across the country, familiarizing himself with the populace, their concerns, and the prevailing circumstances.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha
In 1919, Gandhi initiated satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act, which curtailed fundamental rights like freedom of expression and bolstered police powers. On April 6, 1919, Gandhi and Indians nationwide observed a day of non-violent resistance against this Act. Satyagraha Sabhas were established to spearhead the movement.
April 1919 witnessed numerous demonstrations and hartals across the country, met with severe government reprisals. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, perpetrated by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (April 13), was a brutal manifestation of this suppression.
During the Rowlatt Satyagraha, participants worked to ensure Hindu-Muslim unity against British rule. Gandhi envisioned India as a nation for all its inhabitants, irrespective of their religious affiliations, emphasizing unity among Hindus, Muslims, and other religious communities.
Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement
In 1920, the British imposed a harsh treaty upon the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa. Responding to this, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, leaders of the Khilafat agitation, launched a comprehensive Non-Cooperation Movement.
Gandhi endorsed their cause, urging the Congress to condemn the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the injustice towards the Khalifa, while also demanding swaraj.
The Non-Cooperation Movement gained traction between 1921 and 1922. British titles were renounced, and participation in the legislature was boycotted. Import of foreign cloth significantly declined from 1920 to 1922, indicating the movement's impact. Large swathes of the country teetered on the brink of a formidable rebellion.
People’s initiatives
Amidst the national movement, individuals employed non-violent resistance against British rule, often interpreting Gandhi's call according to their local circumstances and grievances. Various classes and groups initiated protests in their own ways, sometimes diverging from Gandhi's principles.
In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organized nonviolent campaigns against exorbitant land revenue demands imposed by the British. Coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu saw picketing of liquor shops.
In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and impoverished peasants launched several "forest satyagrahas," at times allowing their cattle to graze in forests without paying fees.
In Sind, Muslim traders and peasants fervently supported the Khilafat cause. In Bengal, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance fostered significant communal unity, bolstering the national movement. Similarly, in Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs aimed to oust corrupt mahants from their gurdwaras.
The people’s Mahatma
Gandhiji advocated for fostering class unity rather than class conflict. Peasants believed that Gandhi would support them in their struggles against landlords, while agricultural laborers hoped he would secure land for them.
Following a significant movement, peasants in Pratapgarh, United Provinces, successfully halted the illegal eviction of tenants, attributing their victory to Gandhiji.
The happenings of 1922-1929
Mahatma Gandhi halted the Non-Cooperation Movement. Post-movement, Gandhi's supporters emphasized Congress's need to engage in constructive rural initiatives. Meanwhile, other leaders argued for the party's participation in council elections. In 1930, the Civil Disobedience Movement was initiated.
Noteworthy developments in the mid-1920s included the establishment of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu organization, and the Communist Party of India. By the end of the decade, Congress resolved to advocate for Purna Swaraj in 1929 under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. Consequently, "Independence Day" was commemorated nationwide on January 26, 1930.
The March to Dandi
In 1930, Gandhiji led a march to defy the salt law, which granted the state a monopoly over salt production and sale. The Salt March linked the general aspiration for freedom to a specific grievance shared by all, avoiding division between the rich and the poor.
Gandhiji and his followers embarked on a 240-mile journey from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi, where they defied the government law by collecting natural salt from the seashore and boiling seawater to produce salt.
Peasants, tribal communities, and women participated in significant numbers. The Government of India Act of 1935 advocated provincial autonomy, and elections to provincial legislatures were announced in 1937. In September 1939, the outbreak of the Second World War occurred.
Congress leaders were willing to support the British war effort, but they demanded independence in return. However, the British rejected this demand, leading to the resignation of Congress ministries in protest.
Quit India and Later
Mahatma Gandhi initiated a new phase of the movement against British rule, advocating for the immediate departure of the British from India. He urged people to adopt a "Do or Die" approach in their non-violent resistance against the British.
This movement attracted peasants and youth, some of whom abandoned their studies to join. In various regions, people established their own governing bodies. The initial response from the British was harsh repression, but the rebellion eventually brought an end to British rule in India.
Towards Independence and Partition
In 1940, the Muslim League called for the creation of "Independent States" for Muslims. Starting from the late 1930s, the League began to perceive Muslims as a distinct "nation" separate from Hindus. The results of the provincial elections in 1937 reinforced the League's belief that Muslims constituted a minority and would consistently be marginalized in any democratic system.
Additionally, the Congress's refusal to entertain the League's proposal for a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces in 1937 further soured relations between the two parties.
After the conclusion of the war in 1945, the British initiated negotiations among the Congress, the League, and themselves for India's independence. Subsequently, in 1946, provincial elections were held again. The League insisted on the creation of Pakistan.
In March 1946, the British cabinet dispatched a three-member mission to Delhi to assess and propose a suitable political framework for an independent India. This mission recommended that India remain united and form a loose confederation, granting some autonomy to Muslim-majority regions.
Following the collapse of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League opted for mass agitation to secure its demand for Pakistan. This agitation was declared on August 16, 1946, as "Direct Action Day."
By March 1947, violence had erupted in various parts of northern India. The partition resulted in significant changes for India, with many of its cities undergoing transformations, and a new country, Pakistan, coming into existence.