This chapter delves into the narrative of India's crafts and industries during the era of British dominance, specifically highlighting two key sectors: textiles and iron and steel. These industries played pivotal roles in driving the industrial revolution globally. Britain's mechanized production of cotton textiles propelled it to become the leading industrial power in the nineteenth century.
Moreover, with the growth of its iron and steel industry from the 1850s onwards, Britain earned the moniker "workshop of the world." The industrialization of Britain was intricately linked to its conquest and colonization of India. The themes discussed in this chapter are comprehensively covered in our CBSE Class 8 History notes Chapter 6 – Weavers, Iron Smelters, and Factory Owners.
Indian Textiles and the World Market
By approximately 1750, India had emerged as the primary global producer of cotton textiles, esteemed for their superior quality and intricate artisanship. These textiles were traded extensively in regions such as Southeast Asia (including Java, Sumatra, and Penang) as well as West and Central Asia. European trading entities procured Indian textiles for distribution in Europe.
Words tell us histories
The introduction of fine cotton fabrics from India to European traders occurred through Arab merchants in Mosul, located in present-day Iraq. The Portuguese initially arrived in India seeking spices but also discovered the cotton textiles, which they referred to as "calico" (a term derived from Calicut). Numerous other terms arose, indicative of the popularity of Indian textiles in Western markets.
Distinct varieties of fabric bore specific names, with printed cotton cloths being termed chintz, cossaes (or khassa), and bandanna. The term "chintz" originates from the Hindi word "chhint," signifying a fabric adorned with small, vibrant floral patterns. Indian cotton textiles gained immense popularity in England and Europe, primarily due to their exquisite floral motifs, fine texture, and affordability.
The term "bandanna," stemming from the word "bandhna," denotes any brightly colored and printed scarf used for the neck or head, typically created through a process involving tying and dyeing.
Indian textiles in European markets
By the early eighteenth century, Indian textiles had gained significant popularity, triggering concern among wool and silk manufacturers in England. They initiated protests against the importation of Indian cotton fabrics. In 1720, the British government responded to these concerns by passing legislation known as the Calico Act, which prohibited the use of printed cotton textiles, particularly chintz, in England.
In England, where textile industries were in their nascent stage of development, there was a desire to establish a protected market by restricting the entry of Indian textiles.
Consequently, the Calico printing industry was established with government support. Indian designs were replicated and printed on white muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth within England.
In 1764, John Kaye invented the spinning jenny, followed by Richard Arkwright's invention of the steam engine in 1786, revolutionizing cotton textile weaving.
Despite these advancements, Indian textiles continued to dominate global trade until the late eighteenth century. European trading companies procured cotton and silk textiles from India by importing silver.
Who were the Weavers?
Weavers hailed from specialized communities with a deep-rooted tradition of weaving skills passed down through generations. Among the renowned weaving communities were the tanti weavers of Bengal, the Julahas or momin weavers of northern India, and the sale and Kaikollar and Devangs of southern India.
The initial stage of production involved spinning, where tools like the charkha and the Takli were utilized. The charkha was used for spinning the thread, which was then wound onto the Takli. Subsequently, the weaver transformed the spun thread into cloth.
For colored textiles, the thread underwent dyeing by a specialist known as the Rangrez. In the case of printed cloth, weavers collaborated with expert block printers referred to as Chhipigars.
The Decline of Indian Textiles
The development of cotton industries in Britain had a profound impact on textile producers in India. Indian textiles faced challenges on multiple fronts:
- They had to compete with British textiles in European and American markets.
- Exporting textiles to England became increasingly challenging due to high duties imposed on Indian imports.
- In regions like Africa, America, and Europe, traditional Indian goods lost their market to English-made cotton textiles.
- English and European companies ceased purchasing Indian goods, prompting distressed weavers to petition the government for assistance.
By the 1830s, the influx of British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets, adversely affecting specialized weavers and spinners. However, handloom weaving persisted in India, catering to certain types of clothing that could not be supplied by machines.
In the late nineteenth century, Sholapur in western India and Madura in South India emerged as significant new weaving centers. During the national movement, Mahatma Gandhi advocated for the boycott of imported textiles and promoted the use of hand-spun and handwoven cloth, known as Khadi.
Khadi became a symbol of nationalism, with the charkha representing India's identity. In fact, the charkha was prominently featured at the center of the tricolor flag of the Indian National Congress, adopted in 1931.
Cotton Mills come up
The inception of the first cotton mill in Bombay in 1854 marked a significant milestone, given the city's pivotal role as a major port for exporting raw cotton to England and China. Over the course of the 19th century, Bombay witnessed the establishment of more than 84 mills, primarily by Parsi and Gujarati entrepreneurs.
The trend of mill development extended to other urban centers, with Ahmedabad witnessing the inauguration of its first mill in 1861. The burgeoning cotton mill industry necessitated a considerable labor force, drawing individuals from impoverished peasant, artisan, and agricultural laborer backgrounds.
The textile factory sector in India encountered several challenges, notably the difficulty in competing with the influx of inexpensive textiles imported from Britain. In many nations, governments supported industrialization by imposing substantial tariffs on imports, thereby eliminating competition and safeguarding nascent industries.
A significant surge in cotton factory production in India occurred during the First World War. With textile imports from Britain dwindling, Indian factories were tasked with supplying cloth for military purposes.
The sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz steel
Tipu Sultan's sword possessed exceptional qualities, notably an exceptionally hard and sharp edge capable of penetrating opponents' armor. This attribute stemmed from the use of a unique type of high-carbon steel known as Wootz, which was manufactured across South India. When fashioned into swords, Wootz steel yielded an exceedingly sharp edge with a distinctive water-like pattern, resulting from minuscule carbon crystals embedded in the iron.
Wootz steel was produced in numerous smelting furnaces scattered throughout Mysore. Within these furnaces, iron was combined with charcoal and placed in small clay pots. By carefully controlling temperatures, smelters produced steel ingots used in sword manufacturing.
The term "Wootz" is an Anglicized rendition of various regional terms such as Ukku in Kannada, Hukku in Telugu, and Urukku in Tamil and Malayalam, all of which denote steel. The process of making Wootz steel was widely known across South India, though it eventually ceased to exist by the mid-19th century. The decline of the swords and armor-making industry accompanied the British conquest of India, as imports of iron and steel from England supplanted locally crafted iron and steel products.
Abandoned furnaces in villages
The production of Wootz steel necessitated a highly specialized iron refining technique. Until the late 19th century, iron smelting was widespread in India, with every district in Bihar and Central India boasting smelters constructed from clay and sun-dried bricks. However, by the late 1800s, the art of iron smelting saw a decline, largely due to governmental restrictions on access to reserved forests.
While some forest access was granted in certain regions, iron smelters were subjected to exorbitant taxes by the forest department for each furnace used.
Consequently, by the late 19th century, India began importing iron and steel from Britain. By the early 20th century, local artisans in iron and steel production faced fresh competition.
Iron and steel factories come up in India
In 1904, Charles Weld, an American geologist, and Dorabji Tata, the eldest son of Jamsetji Tata, embarked on a journey to Chhattisgarh in pursuit of iron ore deposits. Their objective was to establish a modern iron and steel plant in India.
After months of exploration, Weld and Dorabji stumbled upon the Rajhara Hills, home to some of the finest ores globally. However, despite the rich ore deposits, the region suffered from aridity and lacked nearby water sources. Thus, the search persisted, with the assistance of the Agarias leading to the discovery of an iron ore source.
A significant forest area along the banks of the Subarnarekha River was cleared to establish the factory and an industrial township known as Jamshedpur. Consequently, the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) commenced steel production in 1912.
Prior to TISCO's establishment, India heavily relied on steel imports from Britain. However, this scenario changed with the rise of TISCO. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 further catalyzed this transformation, as British-produced steel was requisitioned to meet wartime demands in Europe.
TISCO played a pivotal role during the war years by producing shells and carriage wheels, consequently solidifying its position as the largest steel industry within the British Empire.
In the case of iron and steel, industrial expansion materialized as British imports into India dwindled, and the market for Indian industrial goods expanded. This shift coincided with the burgeoning nationalist movement and the strengthening of the industrial class, leading to heightened calls for government protection.